Shaniwar Wada Palace
About Shaniwar Wada Palace :
Shaniwarwada was the stately mansion originally built as the residence of the Peshwas.
The foundation of the mansion was laid by Bajirao 1 in the year 1730 AD and construction was completed in 1732 AD at a cost of Rs. 16,120. Several additions were made to the palace like fortification walls with bastions, gates and court halls by his successors. What was once a seven storied structure was gutted by a fire in the palace.
Only the remains can be seen now like the fortification walls with five gateways and nine bastions that enclosed the entire palace.
The principal gate is called Dilli Darwaja (Delhi Gate); the other gates are called Mastani or Alibahadur Darwaja, Khidki Darwaja, Ganesh Darwaja and Narayan Darwaja.
The walls in the palace were painted with scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata.
A sixteen petal lotus-shaped fountain stands reminiscent of the exquisite work of those times. The historical structure which stands as an important chapter in the history of the Maratha empire, is now maintained by the Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC). Around 1,000 people used to stay in the palace.
Bajirao Peshwa
Shrimant Baji Rao Vishwanath Bhatt or BajiraoPeshwa, as the man of action is commonly called, was the son of the first Peshwa of the Maratha Empire in Maharashtra, Balaji Vishwanath. Bajirao was very popular amongst the soldiers as he was never afraid to lead the battalion from the front.
One of the bravest in the line of Maratha rulers in Maharashtra, Bajirao was responsible for the initiative taken towards territorial expansion.
Bajirao Peshwa was also responsible for the betterment of the government affairs.
Bajirao Peshwa ascended the throne in the year 1721 at the age of 20 and remained on throne till 1740. He is not known to have lost even one battle that he has fought. He took advantage of the weakening of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb. His policy of territorial expansion helped the Maratha Empire to grow in size. However, the administration was a little bit neglected due to which there was the gradual penetration of the English. However he was successful in bringing Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand under the Maratha rule in Maharashtra.
As much as he was dedicated towards his work, he was an artistic person as well.
Bajirao Peshwa ascended the throne in the year 1721 at the age of 20 and remained on throne till 1740. He is not known to have lost even one battle that he has fought. He took advantage of the weakening of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb. His policy of territorial expansion helped the Maratha Empire to grow in size. However, the administration was a little bit neglected due to which there was the gradual penetration of the English. However he was successful in bringing Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand under the Maratha rule in Maharashtra.
As much as he was dedicated towards his work, he was an artistic person as well.
He built the Shaniwar Wada palace in the capital city of Pune.
It is said that Shivaji created the Maratha state and Bajirao transformed the state into an empire.
He gave the empire a stability which it needed very much. He is one of the great rulers that the state of Maharashtra has seen.
Manohar Malgaonkar
इंग्रजी कादंबरीकार म्हणून त्यांचा फार मोठा लौकिक! त्यांनी लिहिलेल्या ‘द प्रिन्सेस’ या कादंबरीला अमेरिकेत प्रतिष्ठेचे पारितोषिक लाभलेले होते.
त्यानंतरही त्यांनी अनेक इंग्रजी कादंबऱ्या, लघुकथा, इतिहास आणि प्रासंगिक विषयांवर प्रदीर्घ लिहिले आहे.
‘ए बेंड इन दि गँजेस्’ ही फाळणीच्या पाश्र्वभूमीवर लिहिलेली कादंबरीही त्या काळी खूप गाजली. त्यांच्या काही कादंबऱ्यांचे मराठीत अनुवादही झाले आहेत.
डॉ. भास्करन
जपानने अंतराळात पाठवलेली हयाबुसा ही अंतराळ कुपी ऑस्ट्रेलियातील वूमेरा तळावर उतरली, त्यावेळेस जपान आणि अमेरिकेबरोबरच मुंबईतही जल्लोष साजरा झाला. कारण या अंतराळ कुपीच्या परतण्यामध्ये एका भारतीय वैज्ञानिकाचे यश सामावलेले होते. या वैज्ञानिकाचे नाव डॉ. श्याम भास्करन. ४६ वर्षांचे असलेल्या डॉ. भास्करन यांचा जन्म मुंबईत माटुंगा येथे झाला. बालपण मुंबईतच गेले. हा लहान मुलगा त्याहीवेळेस रात्री आकाशाकडे डोळे लावून बसलेला असायचा, अशी आठवण श्यामचे वडील गोिवदन सांगतात.
Narendra Tidake
संयुक्त महाराष्ट्राच्या स्थापनेनंतर राज्यात झालेल्या विधानसभा निवडणुकीनंतर काँग्रेसचे सरकार येणे काहीसे दुरापास्त झाले होते. काही आमदारांचे संख्याबळ कमी पडत असताना यशवंतराव चव्हाणांना साथ मिळाली ती विदर्भातील काँग्रेसच्या आमदारांची. त्यावेळी विदर्भात कामगार चळवळीत अग्रेसर असलेले काँग्रेसचे नेते नरेंद्र तिडके यांनी पुढाकार घेत २३ आमदारांची ताकद यशवंतरावांच्या पाठीशी उभी केली आणि राज्यात काँग्रेसचे सरकार स्थापन झाले. |
Peshwa Dynasty
Peshwa Dynasty
Peshwa stands for Prime Minister, in Marathi. As the name suggests, the Peshwa of the last ruler of the Shivaji dynasty, Shahu, ascended the throne and established the Peshwa Dynasty.
In the year 1712, Balaji Vishwanath laid the foundations of the Peshwa Dynasty.
The Peshwa Dynasty prevented the Maratha Empire from disintegration after the death of Shahu in the year 1712.
The Peshwa Dynasty brought the Maratha Kingdom into new heights of glory during the reign from 1712 to 1804.
Bajirao 1 made Pune the capital of the Peshwa rule. During his reign the Maratha Kingdom had to suffer a crumbling defeat in the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in the year 1761. The defeat reduced the power of the Maratha kingdom and confined it regionally.
After the death of the great Shivaji, the Maratha Kingdom went through a period of Political instability, which could be resolved by the Peshwas periodically.
In the year 1712, Balaji Vishwanath laid the foundations of the Peshwa Dynasty.
The Peshwa Dynasty prevented the Maratha Empire from disintegration after the death of Shahu in the year 1712.
The Peshwa Dynasty brought the Maratha Kingdom into new heights of glory during the reign from 1712 to 1804.
Bajirao 1 made Pune the capital of the Peshwa rule. During his reign the Maratha Kingdom had to suffer a crumbling defeat in the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in the year 1761. The defeat reduced the power of the Maratha kingdom and confined it regionally.
After the death of the great Shivaji, the Maratha Kingdom went through a period of Political instability, which could be resolved by the Peshwas periodically.
Peshwa
Peshwa
Sonopant Dabir (1640–1674)
- Moropant Trimbak Pingle (1674–1683)
- Moreshwar Pingale (1683–1689)
- Ramchandra Pant Amatya (1689–1708)
- Bahiroji Pingale (1708–1711)
- Parshuram Tribak Kulkarni (Pant Pratinidhi) (1711–1713)
- Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720)
- Baji Rao I (1720–1740) (son of Balaji Vishwanath)
- Balaji Bajirao (son of Bajirao I)
- Madhavrao Peshwa (2nd son of Balaji Bajirao)
- Narayanrao Peshwa (3rd son of Balaji Bajirao)
- Raghunathrao Peshwa (brother of Balaji Bajirao)
- Sawai Madhavrao Peshwa (son of Narayanrao)
- Chimnajee Madhavarao (26 May 1796 - 6 Dec 1796) (brother of Bajirao II, adopted by Madhavrao II's wife)
- Bajirao II (son of Raghunathrao)
- Amritrao (Brother of Bajirao II), Peshwa for a short period during Yashwantrao Holkar's rule on Pune. Bajirao was later reinstated by the British.
- Nana Sahib Peshwa the second (adopted son of Bajirao II)
MUMBAI history
When Mumbai was still Bombay, it was a cluster of seven Koli islands.Muslim ruler Sultan Muhamed Begada captured the by Hindu inhabited islands.
The Portuguese Occupation of Mumbai
The Portuguese Vasco da Gama found the sea route to Bombay, and several attacks followed. In 1534 the Sultan of Gujarat gave in and handed the islands over to the Portuguese, but the islands turned out not to be of any use to them. When King Charles II married the Portuguese princess Catherine Braganza, the Portuguese decided to give the islands to him in 1661.Charles II took over the remaining islands a couple years later. The East India Company saw the potential of Bombay as trading port because of its strategic location, and took over the island.
Over the years Bombay became one of the biggest industrial cities in the world, with Gerard Aungier as the "Father of Bombay." He was the one who persuaded businessmen from all over India to come and settle in this central city and so it developed into a great commercial centre.
Why Bombay Changed into Mumbai
England ruled over Bombay until 1947, when India became independent.
In 1960 Bombay State became Maharashtra, with Bombay as its capitol. It took until 1995 before the name Bombay changed into Mumbai. When Shiv Sena, a Hindu nationalist party, won the elections, they decided to give the city a different name. Since the name Bombay was given to the city by King Charles II, the Shiv Sena party thought this was too English. The party changed the name into Mumbai, based on the name of the Hindu goddess Mumbadevi.
Industry in Maharashtra
The development of a State requires infrastructure. From this point of view, many important factors continue to contribute to the industrial development in Maharashtra such as the availability of water, electricity, roads, modern transport and communication facilities.
Mumbai being an international port, rise of various industrial development corporations as well as financial institutions and the industrial cities of Mumbai, Pune, Thane, Aurangabad, Nashik and Nagpur are pillars of development in the State.
According to the Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2008-09, as many as 14,975 industries have been registered in the period from August 1991 to December 2008, with a total investment of Rs. 5,04,689.
Concerning the total industrial investment in the country,
Maharashtra makes a 10% contribution, while in case of employment generation the State’s contribution is 15%.
Maharashtra has a 23% share in the total industrial production in the country.
Types of Industries in Maharashtra:
| Agro based Industries | Textiles, Sugar, Oil mills, Tobacco processing, Gram mills, Wineries, Rubber |
| Mineral wealth based Industries | Iron and Steel, Cement, Mineral oil curing, engineering |
| Forest produce based industries | Log mills, Paper mills, Match box, Pharmaceuticals, Toys, Sports goods, Furniture |
| Animal products based Industries | Leather goods, woollen clothes, silk, textiles, milk products |
Samyukta Maharashtra Movement ,,,,,and Today
The heart of what was then Bombay city was bathed in blood in January 1956. The Bombay police were ordered to fire on peaceful demonstrators who were on the streets to demand a linguistic state for the Marathi speaking people, with Bombay as its capital.
The government in New Delhi had already agreed to the right of other linguistic groups to form states, but was dilly-dallying when it came to Maharashtra.
Eighty-three people were mowed down in what remains one of the most brutal police attacks on a peaceful rally in independent India. The total number of people who lost their lives in the movement: 106.
These martyrs have now become the center of a renewed political battle as the state of Maharashtra prepares to celebrate its golden jubilee on 1 May. Sharad Pawar’s Nationalist Congress Party is trying to build on its huge success in the recent municipal elections in Navi Mumbai, and has plastered Mumbai with posters reminding citizens that 23 of the 105 martyrs were from other communities, thus trying to position itself apart from the two Senas run by the warring Thackeray cousins. The list of martyrs includes Muslims, Jews, Christians, Parsis and North Indians. While it is not clear how many of these were Marathi speakers — the Konkani Muslims, Bene Israelis and the Christian East Indians of Vasai speak Marathi as their mother tongue — the broader point of the NCP posters is well taken.
The movement for a united Maharashtra was led by a rainbow coalition — the writer P.K. Atre, the communist S.A. Dange, the socialist S.M. Joshi, the social reformer Prabodhankar Thackeray, the Gandhian Senapati Bapat, the economist D.R. Gadgil, the peasant leader Keshavrao Jedhe and the proletarian bard Shahir Amar Sheikh, among others. The January 1956 killings angered moderate opinion as well. A miffed C.D. Deshmukh, India’s finest finance minister till Manmohan Singh came along, resigned from the Nehru cabinet.
The overall political leaning of this leadership was to the moderate Left, and there were hopes that the state that eventually emerged from the bloody battles would be progressive in both social and economic terms. In fact, the battle for Bombay was split along class lines. The business class that funded the Congress wanted the city to become a Union Territory that it could control while the predominantly-Marathi working class wanted it to be the capital of a progressive Maharashtra.
Fifty years later, the latter dream is in a shambles. The state is deep in debt, the epicenter of farmer suicides, threatened by Naxalite insurgency at its peripheries, struggles with immense deprivation in many districts and has seen its industrial supremacy threatened by other states, even as power has been captured by a narrow and venal political elite linked to the sugar lobby.
Meanwhile, Mumbai has lost its green spaces as successive governments changed rules to benefit builders, its infrastructure has not kept pace with population growth and the social composition of many old parts of the city has changed.
Maharashtra in Ancient times
Maharashtra in Ancient times
The ArthaShastra written by Arya Chanakya alias Kautilya during the regime of Chandragupta Maurya refers to Ashmak or Aparanta regions. Ashmak is the region surrounding today’s Ajanta.
A rock edict from the fourth century has been found in village Eran in Madhya Pradesh near district Sagar. In this rock edict, General Satyanag refers to himself as Maharashtra. In the next century, Swami Chakradhar, founder of the Mahanubhav sect, prompts his followers to call oneself as Maharashtri.
Carbon-14 dating of the objects found at the excavation sites near Nashik, Jorve, Nevasa, Chandoli, Sonegaon, Inamgaon, Dayamabad, Nandur, Madhyameshwar fixes the time of proto historic settlements in Maharashtra between 5 lakh to 30 lakh BC. From these and excavations near riverbeds, historians have concluded that stone-age man lived in Maharashtra nearly a hundred thousand years ago.
Slowly, these settlements grew. Outsiders, especially from the northcame to Maharashtra as generals, king’s ambassadors and soldiers. After initial conflict, the locals and the outsiders settled in peaceful coexistence.
In the historical period the following were the major powers in Maharashtra:
* Shree Satkarni and Gautam’s son Satkarni from the Satvahan dynasty,
* Vindhyashakti and Pravarsen II of Wakataka dynasty,
* Satyashree Pulakeshi and Vikramaditya of Chalukya dynasty,
* Mananka, Dantidurga, Pratham Krishna, Dhruvaraj of Rashtrakut dynasty,
* Anantadev and Aparaditya of Kadamba dynasty of Gomantak,
* Dhrudhavrat, Bhillam and RamdevaRaya of Yadava dynasty.
These kings contributed greatly to the history of Maharashtra. This, in brief, is the ancient history of Maharashtra.
Marathi Theatre
Theatre is an art form considered to be a very rich aspect of the Indian culture.
The first Marathi stage performance was the play Seeta Swayamvar done by Vishnudas Bhave in 1843.
But it was more of an experimental form of theatre derived from the folk forms and the already existing Shakespearean and Parsi dramas. After that it took almost three decades for Marathi theatre to lay its foundations. But the tradition of Marathi theatre in the true sense of the term is said to have started with the musical Shakuntal staged by Annasaheb Kirloskar in 1880. Playwrights and directors used the old Sanskrit and English dramas as a reference and started writing and designing their plays and performances.
The play Thorle Madhavrao Peshwe written by Vinayak Janardan Kirtane in 1961 can be said to be the first original historical play written in Marathi that was not an adaptation or one based on myth.
Successful plays like Jhansichya Raniche Naatak (1870), Sawai Madhavravancha Mrutyu (1871), AfjhalKhanachya Mrutyuche Naatak (1871) and Malharrav Maharaj (1875) were staged during that period.
Era of Farcical plays - the springboard for social drama
Along with Bhave’s mythological plays, light-hearted farcical plays portraying the social life of those times were also done in large numbers. Dhongi Bairagyache Fars, Kutil Krutyadarsh Fars, Punarvivah Dukhhadarshan, Basundipuricha Fars, Khaprya Chorache Prahasan, Hunda Prahasan are a few of them. These plays commented or criticized comically on the contemporary social developments in those times, hence proving to be a conducive platform for the social drama that followed.
Era of musical plays
Annasaheb Kirloskar
When Marathi drama companies were busy doing entertainment of the Marathi drama lovers with mythological plays between 1843 and 1855, a new star called Annasaheb Kirloskar was born on the horizon of Marathi drama. After the 1880s, farcical plays were overshadowed by the glamour of Kirloskar’s musicals. On 31st October 1880 in Pune, Kirloskar’s epic play Shakuntal was staged for the first time. This revolutionary effort laid foundation to the formulation of what we today call Marathi drama. The tickets for the show were sold out even before the day of the show; the auditorium called Anandodbhav in Pune where the play was presented on that day was jam packed with an eager audience. After the success of Shakuntal, Kirloskar wrote plays like Sangeet Saubhadra and Ramrajyavirog that enjoyed similar success. In the history of Marathi musical drama Annasaheb Kirloskar is regarded as the father of Marathi Sangeet Natak (musical drama). The Marathi theatre movement in a way stabilized thanks to the creative brilliance and organizational excellence of these plays.
Era of social drama
Govind Ballal Deval
The years between 1885 and 1920 were very productive in terms of the quality and the quantity of plays written for the Marathi stage, giving birth to excellent playwrights, directors and actors. On the forefront was Govind Ballal Deval with epic plays like Durga (1886), Vikramorvashiya (1889), Mruchhakatik (1889), Jhunjharrav (1890), Phalgunrav athva Tarbiricha Ghotala (1899) which was later converted into Sangeet Sanshaykallol, Shapsambhram (1893) and Sangeet Sharda (1899). Being the first of its kind, Sangeet Sharda is rightly called the pioneer of social Marathi drama. The play is very artistic and progressive in nature. Its story is full of simple but dramatic incidences. Govind Ballal Deval carried on the great tradition of Annasaheb Kirloskar’s Marathi theatre with the same success. The compositions from his plays are popular even today. Deval’s compositions, full of meaning and melody, fascinated Marathi theatre audience and lingered long in the minds of music lovers. They are said to be the golden treasury of Marathi musical drama. Even the verses from Kirloskar’s Shakuntal were written by him. Deval is said to have laid the foundation and given impetus to further writing in the thought provoking and progressive social genre of playwriting.
Shripad Krishna Kolhatkar
Kolhatkar was the most influential theatre figure in the post-Deval era. A new era began in Marathi drama and Sangeet Natak, initiated by Shripad Krishna Kolhatkar. His plays seem to be heavily influenced by the works of Moliere. The plays written by Kolhatkar are Veertanay (1894), Mooknatya (1897), Guptamanjus (1901), Mativikar (1906), Premshodhan (1908), Vadhupariksha (1912), Sahchaarini (1917), Parivartan (1917), Janmarahasya(1918), Shivpavitrya (1921), Shramsaafalya (1928) and Mayavivah (1928). A major characteristic of his plays was the variety evident in them. They were full of suspense and fantasy. Their storylines were new and imaginative. The wit and parody in his plays was exceptionally brilliantly crafted. Kolhatkar thought that Kirloskar’s old compositions were not favourable for extension and he composed a verse in Raag Malkans (a classical note), creating shock waves among the established norms in musical drama. He introduced compositions into Marathi plays that were from Parsi and Urdu theatrical style. These plays were an instant hit and became very popular amongst the audiences. Kolhatkar’s first few plays had singers like Bhaurao Kolhatkar, who were blessed with a heavenly voice, hence adding to the popularity.
Contemporary relevance of plays
Krishnaji Prabhakar Khadilkar
A very ambitious theatre person in nature, Khadilkar lent beauty and might to the Marathi theatre movement. Kanchangadchi Mohana, written by him in 1897, was a play about an imaginative solemn character Prataprao who propagated the notion of independence. His play Keechakvadh, actually based on mythical stories but full of contemporary relevance, was the first political play in Marathi. It was instrumental in arousing a public sentiment against the atrocities of Lord Curzon and hence it was banned by the Government in 1910 after running in the theatres for only three years. After that all of his plays like Bhaubandaki, Maanaapamaan, Premadhwaj, Vidyaharan and Satvapariksha gained immense popularity. Khadilkar’s Maanaapamaan has been a miraculous gift to Marathi musical theatre. Working hard continuously for six years in Kirloskar company along with Balgandharva resulted in the rise of Gandharva Natak Mandali (drama group). Balgandharva’s exemplary skills gave justice to the play Maanaapamaan and took Marathi theatre to new highs. But the next play Sangeet Swayamvar written in 1916 started a new era on Marathi stage. It excelled the earlier plays in terms of music and melodious compositions and scaled new heights of popularity. After Sangeet Swayamvar he wrote the plays Draupadi, Menaka, Savatimatsar, Savitri and Tridandi Sanyaas. All the main characters in Khadilkars plays are sublime, inspirational, and full of might and bravery.
Ram Ganesh Gadkari
A playwright who considered Kolhatkar to be his guru, Ram Ganesh Gadkari followed suit by writing plays based on new and independent storylines. Gadkari was part of Kirloskar Natak Mandali where its manager Shankarrao Mujumdar took keen interest in him. Bal Gandharva was at the height of his powers this time and asked Gadkari to write a drama for him. Vedyancha Baajaar and Garvnirvan were the first plays he wrote. Later his plays Premsanyaas, Punyaprabhaav, Ekach Pyala and Bhaavabandhan achieved great success. He had told BalGandharva to act in torn clothes in his play. In the play Ekach Pyala, BalGandharva had to play the feminine character of Sindhu, who is a poor but devoted wife of a drunkard named Sudhakar. His play Rajasanyaas (a play based on the life of King Sambhaji) was left incomplete because of his death. In a short writing career spanning only eight years, he mesmerized audiences with his bright language and fantastic imagination. His plays are full of grandeur, spontaneity, and funny, bizarre happenings. Gadkari’s poetry is even more famous than his plays. He wrote poems under the pen name Govindagraj. His poems exerted major influence in the decades following his death. Gadkari also tried his hand at humour under the pen name Baalakram.
Sawarkar
Sawarkar’s three plays Usshaap, Sanyastakhadga and Uttarkriya are notable for their dialogues and dramatic content. The plays fundamentally commented on socio-political issues. Similar in style to his other works in literature, Sawarkar’s plays caught the eye of readers and audiences because of the radiant language and the sense of rebellion in them.
B. V. (Mama) Warerkar
Mama Warerkar, as he was fondly known, started writing plays in 1914 and continued writing till 1960. Hence it is possible to sketch a graph of the changes in the condition of Marathi theatre over that period. His earlier plays Sanyaashaachaa Sansaar (1919), Turungaachya Daaraat (1923) and Sattechey Gulam (1927) aimed at creating social awareness. But his play Bhoomikanyaa Seeta (1950) tries to unravel the psychological complexities of Seeta also talking about male-female relationship, king-subject relationship and empowerment of women.
Influences of modern media and world theatre
Natyamanvantar and Andhalyanchi Shaalaa
The Marathi theatre movement underwent a slump after 1925 thanks to the growing influence of radio and cinema. But it was due to the cinema and radio that Indian theatre became aware and informed about the progress on the western theatre scene. Inspired by new sensibilities in world theatre, K. N. Kale, Anant Kanekar, G. Y. Chitnis and S. V. Vartak started a theatre group called Natyamanvantar. In 1933 Vartak’s Andhalyaanchi Shaalaa (Blind School) opened in theatres. This was the first Marathi play to have a female actor. It was also revolutionary in bringing naturalistic sets, acting, background music and lighting on Marathi stage. Although NatyaManvantar stopped functioning in merely four years owing to the ideological differences among its members, its tradition of making naturalistic plays was taken forward by the likes of P. K. Atre and Altekar in their plays. Vishram Bedekar’s BrahmaKumari, a mythological play with contemporary relevance, is also from this decade.
P. K. Atre
The years between 1933 and 1943 are said to be the Atre Age of Marathi theatre. His first play Sashtang Namaskar became popular overnight and fetched him acclaim. It literally brings to life the world of a capricious person. Not only is this play an excellent parody on the traits of human behaviour but it also gave the theatre tradition in Maharashtra an interesting turn. Atre wrote many plays after that namely Sashtang Namaskar (1935), Gharabaher (1934), Bhramacha Bhopala (1935), Udyacha Sansar (1936), Lagnachi Bedi (1936), Moruchi Maushi (1947) and To Mi Navhech (1962). In all of these plays Atre shows as excellent sense of characterization, situation building and dialogue writing. Atre was instrumental in helping the farcical genre attain a respectable status in society.
M. G. Rangnekar
Rangnekar founded his own theatre group called NatyaNiketan and presented his plays through this group. Through his plays he portrayed issues pertaining largely to the Marathi middle class. For example he brought forward the problems of the working young woman in Ashirwad whereas KulaVadhu discusses the problems of a female artist. Taking into consideration the change in the taste of the audiences, he incorporated five-six popular genre cinema-like songs in each of his plays. They were simple to understand and easy to sing and hence were preferred over the traditional NatyaSangeet instantly. Realistic setting, dramatic dialogues and light hearted themes made his plays very famous in his times. Majhe ghar, KanyaDaan and Vahini also ran successfully in theatres.
Post-Independence
Doosra Peshwa, Vaijayanti and Kounteya are examples of plays V. V. Shirwadkar wrote between 1947 and 1954. He also adapted Shakespeare’s Macbeth into Marathi by the name Rajmukut. In that period, on one hand his plays show Khadilkar’s influence on his style of writing but on the other hand they have been staged in modern styles. Hence these plays are considered to be very important to have served as the link between tradition and modernity on Marathi stage.
P. L. (PuLa) Deshpande also wrote interesting plays like Tuka Mhane Aata (1948), Ammaldaar (1952), Bhagyawan (1953) and Tuza Aahe Tujpashi (1957) in the first decade after independence. Amongst these, Tuza Aahe Tujpashi is the one was most successful. It is even staged by various groups even today. It is a complex mixture of several cultural issues.
Baban Prabhu wrote farcical plays in the same period. Zopi Gelela Jaga Zala (1958) and Dinuchya Sasubai Radhabai (1960) are two farces by Prabhu that achieved tremendous success on the Marathi stage. Such farces were instrumental in bringing certain flexibility on Marathi stage in terms of incorporating a different kind of wit and humour in the scripting and the free acting style.
The likes of Bal Kolhatkar and Madhusudan Kalelkar became well known for their family dramas or living room dramas. These kinds of plays were a hit amongst the masses. Thousands of shows of Kolhatkar’s Waahato Hi Durvanchi Jodi have been performed till date.
Around the mid-sixties novelists and litterateurs like G. N. Dandekar, Vyankatesh Madgulkar and S. N. Pendse wrote for the stage. They even adapted their own novels like Shitu, PavanaKaathcha Dhondi, Raje Mastar, Garambicha Bapu, Yashoda etc. into plays.
Modern day Marathi Theatre
The decade between 1955 and 1965 saw Marathi drama open new avenues for itself with the likes of Vijay Tendulkar, Vasant Kanetkar, Jaywant Dalvi, S. N. Pendse, Vidyadhar Gokhale, Ratnakar Matkari and P. L. Deshpande starting off as playwrights. The journey from tradition to modernity had begun. Revolutionary plays like Khanolkar’s Ek Shunya Bajirao (1966) and Tendulkar’s Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe (1967) changed the course of the Marathi theatre tradition. This period also saw theatre personalities like Madhukar Toradmal - Sainik Navacha Manus, Kaley Bet Laal Batti, Jhunj, Tarun Turka Mhatare Ark etc. and Purshottam Darvhekar - Warhadi Mansa (1964), Abol Jhali Sataar (1968), Katyaar Kalajaat Ghusali etc. emerge as playwrights and directors. The commercial drama scene brightened up with V. V. Shirwadkar’s Aamcha Naav Baburav, Natasamraat, Vidushak and Veej Mhanali Dhartila as well as by the plays written by Suresh Khare and S. N. Navare.
Kanetkar
Vasant Kanetkar set a new benchmark as a commercial theatre playwright with the quality of his plays as well as the number of shows that were done of his plays like Vedyacha Ghar Unhat, Raigadala Jevha Jaag Yete, Ithe Oshalalaa Mrutyu, Vishavrukshaachi Chhaya and Himalayachi Savali. Kanetkar wrote plays on a variety of themes and tackled a wide array of issues through his plays. His control over the design of a play and ease in dialogue structure make his plays special. He can be said to be the most popular playwright ever on the commercial Marathi stage.
Vijay Tendulkar
The first playwright responsible to take Marathi plays beyond the frontiers of Maharashtra and even India was Vijay Tendulkar. Plays like Gidhade, Sakharam Binder, Baby, Ghashiram Kotwal, Mitrachi Goshta, Kamala, Ashi Paakhare Yeti etc. created ripples throughout Maharashtra and elsewhere. Tendulkar stretched the limits of daring and experimentation in an otherwise conventional theatre tradition. An in-depth understanding of the medium enabled him to go beyond the boundaries of the Marathi language. He realistically portrayed the complex relation between the common man and society with all its nuances and intricacies. Neither was he in search of simplistic resolutions to problems that exist in society, nor did he find naïve and convenient endings to his plays, hence making his art large.
New Trends
Jaywant Dalvi made the commercial audiences watch plays and think about them differently with thought provoking plays such as Sabhya Gruhastaho and Sooryaasta. He also adapted his novels into plays like SandhyaChhaya, Mahasagar and Barrister.
The generation of playwrights that followed included names like Mahesh Elkunchwar, Satish Alekar and G. P. Deshpande. Elkunchwar experimented with form in his plays Garbo, VaasanaKand, Party and RaktaPurush. His trilogy Wada and Atmakatha talks about the complexity in interpersonal relations and the rising communication gap between individuals. He used humour, wit, sarcasm and verse to achieve the desired effect.
Satish Alekar brought freshness into Marathi theatre with his one-act plays like Bhajan, Jhulta Pool, Bhinta and Walan and plays like Mickey ani Memsaheb. Through personal experiences, Alekar tackled the absurdity in his times in the middle class in Pune and its lifestyle using black comedy as a tool in his play MahaNirvan. He has portrayed the problems of hangover of the Sangeet-Natak tradition and the problems pertaining to the middle class in Begum Barve. Mahapur is an excellent work on issues of the youth, the trauma of heartbreak and ideological differences between two generations.
Udhwasta Dharmashala a play written by G. P. Deshpande was staged first in 1974. This play is a verbal political play considered to be a very important play to have been written in the 70s. a few other important plays written and staged in the 70s were Chal Re Bhoplya Tunuk Tunuk by Achyut Vaze, Thank You Mister Glad, HamidaBaichi Kothi and Putrakameshti by Anil Barve and Ti Phulrani and Teen Paishyacha Tamasha by P. L. Deshpande.
Important plays written after 1985 include Kon Mhanto Takka Dila by Sanjay Pawar, Chahul and Charchaughi by Prashant Dalvi, Adhaantar by Jayant Pawar, Kirvant by Premanand Gajvi, Mumbaiche Kavle, Shobhayatra and Samadvibhaj Trikon by Shafaat Khan, Chaarshe Koti Visarbhole and Surya Pahilela Manus by Makarand Sathe, Wata-Palwata by Datta Bhagat, Saavalya by Chetan Datar and Sathecha Kaay Karaycha by Rajiv Naik.
Rajiv Naik has also written theoretical books on Marathi theatre. Naatakatil Mithak and Khel Naatakacha are two such books which discuss in detail the concept in theatre such as time, space etc.
The amount of theatre that is being done on the commercial as well as parallel stage in Marathi is very encouraging. The Marathi theatre scene is the most happening in the whole of India.
References :
www.artists-india.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.wikipedia.com
Bal Gandharva, artist par excellence of Marathi Sangitnatak.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak was felicitated by him as Bal Gandharva as `young celestial singer`.
He joined the Kirloskar Natak Mandali in 1905 and breathed new life into it with the roles of Kirloskar`s established heroines Shakuntala in Shakuntat and Subhadra in Sanbhadra, and created the brave-yet-coy part of Bhamini in Khadilkar`s Manapaman i.e. `Honour and Dishonour` in 1911.
In 1913 Bal Gandharva established his own Gandharva Natak Mandali in partnership with Govindrao Tembe and Ganesh Bodas, who trained him in acting, and playwrights Khadilkar and Deval. The range of his characters was wide, from mythological to historical and social, but always emotionally expressive. His classical roles included Subhadra, Shakuntala, and Devyani or Khadilkar`s Vidyaharan, his domestic ones Bhamini, Sharada i.e. Deval`s Sharada, Revati i.e. Deval`s Samshaykallot, Sarojini i.e. S. K. Kolhatkar`s Mukanayak, and the unforgettable, self-sacrificing Sindhu in Gadkari`s Ekach pyala i.e. `Just One Glass` in 1919. The elegance of his female impersonation made middle-class women emulate his style and costume, particularly the fashionable coiffures and drape of his saris. His posture epitomized the classical tribhangi i.e. thrice bent` pose of head and legs gently angled to the body, looking with three-quarters profile at the spectators. He influenced and set standards of aesthetic sensibility even for movies. But after entering cinema by portraying the male saint-poet Eknath in Dharmatma i.e. `Soul of Dharma` in 1935, he soon rejected film acting as uncomfortable.
Bal Gandharva learnt classical music from Bhaskarbuwa Bakhle and employed it in evoking various rasas with unsurpassed dramatic intensity. He popularized Hindustani and Carnatic classical by basing his songs on authentic forms such as khayal, thumri, dadra, and ghazal, thereby reaching classical music from the concert halls into kitchens and women`s rooms. He founded a vocal idiom conducive to acting with his clear, melodious voice, sense of rhythm, and endearing modulations. According to Tembe, he managed to achieve an impossible synthesis of organ and sarangi i.e. instruments completely diverse in nature and in his singing. Gandharva Natak Mandali also launched such great vocalists as Pandharpurkar Buwa, Vinayakrao Patwardhan, and `Master` Krishnarao, and accompanists like Ahmadjan Tirakawa in tabla and Kadar Baksh in sarangi. Unfortunately, Bal Gandharva`s extravagant tastes in personal and professional life led him into heavy debts. He was too proud to accept a purse of Rs 1.5 lakh collected by his rich fans. His company was famed for lavish sets such as arches and staircases, carpets, and period furniture, drapery of satin, velvet, and gold, the stage sprayed with perfume, and production budgets up to Rs 75,000. It carried on the work started by Kirloskar in popularizing Sangitnatak and eventually dominated the genre. However, after the emergence of realistic Marathi theatre it gradually lost its hold. Ironically, Bal Gandharva left it in 1944 to perform elsewhere. He married the singer-actress Goharbai in 1955, and lived in retirement in Bombay. This famous theatre personality died in the year of 1967.
राष्ट्रसंत तुकडोजी महाराज
भारत हा खेड्यांचा देश आहे, हे लक्षात घेऊन ग्रामविकास झाला की राष्ट्राचा विकास होईल, अशी त्यांची श्रद्धा व विचारसरणी होती. त्यांनी समाजातल्या सर्व घटकांतील लोकांचा उद्धार कसा होईल, याविषयी अहर्निश काळजी वाहिली, चिंता केली. ग्रामोन्नती व ग्रामकल्याण हा त्यांच्या विचारसरणीचा जणू केंद्रबिंदूच होता. भारतातील खेड्यांच्या स्थितीची त्यांना पुरेपुर कल्पना होती. त्यामुळं त्यांनी ग्रामविकासाच्या विविध समस्यांचा मूलभूत स्वरुपाचा विचार केला व त्या कशा सोडवाव्यात, याविषयी उपाययोजनाही सुचविली. या उपाययोजना त्यांच्या काळाला तर उपकारक ठरल्याच पण त्यानंतरच्या काळालाही उपकारक ठरल्या. हे आज (त्यांनी आपली जीवनयात्रा संपल्याविनंतरच्या काळातही) तीव्रतेनं जाणवतं. यातून राष्ट्रसंतांच द्रष्टेपण व्यक्त झालं आहे.
अमरावतीजवळ मोझरीच्या गुरुकुंज आश्रमाची स्थापना हे त्यांच्या आयुष्यातील जसं लक्षणीय कार्य आहे,त्याचप्रमाणं ग्रामगीतेचं लेखन हाही त्यांच्या जीवनकार्यातील अत्यंत महत्वाचा टप्पा. ग्रामगीता ही जणू तुकडोजी महाराजांची वाङमयीन पूर्तीच होय. स्वत:ला ते तुकड्यादास म्हणत कारण भजन म्हणताना ते जी भिक्षा घेत, त्यावरच आपण बालपणी जीवन कंठिलं, ही त्यांची श्रद्धा होती. त्यांचं मूळनाव माणिक होतं पण त्यांचं हे नाव त्यांच्या गुरूंनी अडकोजी महाराज यांनीच योजिलं होतं.
खेडेगाव स्वयंपूर्ण कसं होईल, याविषयीची त्यांनी उपाययोजना सुचविली, ती अतिशय परिणामकारक ठरली. ग्राम हे सुशिक्षित व्हावं, सुसंस्कृत व्हावं, ग्रामोद्योग संपन्न व्हावं, गावानेच देशाच्या गरजा भागवाव्यात, ग्रामोद्योगांना प्रोत्साहन मिळावं, प्रचारकांच्या रूपानं गावाला नेतृत्व मिळावं, अशीही त्यांची निष्ठा होती. तिचे प्रतिबिंब ग्रामगीतेत उमटलं आहे. देवभोळेपणा, अंधश्रद्धा जुनाट कालबाह्य रूपी नाहीशा व्हाव्यात, याविषयी त्यांनी अविरत प्रयत्न केले.
सर्वधर्मसमभाव हेही राष्ट्रसंतांच्या विचारविश्वाचं एक वैशिष्ट्यच होतं. त्यासाठी त्या सामुदायिक/सर्वधर्मीय प्राथनेचा आग्रहपूर्वक पुरस्कार केला.
एकेश्वरवाद ही त्यांनी विवेकनिष्ठ जीवनदृष्टीतूनच पुरस्कारला होता. धर्मातील अनावश्यक कर्मकांडाला त्यांनी फाटा दिला. आयुष्याच्या शेवटच्या काळापर्यंत त्यांनी आपल्या प्रभावी खंजिरी भजनाच्या माध्यमातून त्यांना अभिप्रेत असलेल्या विचारसरणीचा प्रचार पुरस्कार करुन आध्यात्मिक , सामाजिक, राष्ट्रीय प्रबोधन केले. स्वातंत्र्याच्या चळवळीसाठी योग्य अशी पार्श्वभूमी निर्माण व्हावी, यासाठी त्यांना कारावासही भोगावा लागला. अखिल भारतीय पातळीवर त्यांनी साधूसंघटनेची स्थापना केली. गुरुकुंज आश्रमाच्या शाखोपशाखा स्थापन करून त्यांनी शिस्तबद्ध सामाजिक कार्यकर्त्यांची एक फळीच निर्माण केली. गुरुकुंजाशी संबंधित असलेले हे सर्व निष्ठावंत कार्यकर्ते आजही त्यांचं हे कार्य अखंडव्रतासारखं चालवीत आहेत.
महिलोन्नती हाही तुकडोजी महाराजांच्या विचारविश्वाचा एक लक्षणीय पैलू. कुटुंबव्यवस्था, समाजव्यवस्था, राष्ट्रव्यवस्था ही स्त्रीवर कशी अवलंबून असते, हे त्यांनी आपल्या किर्तनांद्वारे समाजाला पटवून दिलं. त्यामुळं स्त्रीला अज्ञानात व दास्यात ठेवणं कसं अन्यायकारक आहे, हे त्यांनी अत्यंत प्रभावीपणे पटवून दिलं.
देशातले तरूण हे राष्ट्राचे भावी आधारस्तंभ. ते बलोपासक असावेत म्हणजे ते समाजाचं व राष्ट्राचं संरक्षण करु शकतील. ते नीतिमान व सुसंस्कृतयुक्त कसे होतील, याविषयीचं उपदेशपर व मार्गदर्शनपर लेखन त्यांनी केलं. व्यसनाधीनतेचा तीव्र निषेध राष्ट्रसंतांनी आपल्या लेखनातून केला.
ऐहिक व पारलौकिक यांचा सुंदर समन्वय राष्ट्रसंतांच्या साहित्यात झाला आहे. त्यांनी मराठीप्रमाणंच हिंदी भाषेतही विपुल लेखन केलं. आजही त्यांचं हे साहित्य आपल्याला मार्गदर्शन करीत आहे, यावरुन त्यांच्या साहित्यात अक्षर वाङमयाची मूल्यं कशी दडली आहेत, याची सहज कल्पना येईल. राष्ट्रपतिभवनात त्यांचे खंजिरी भजन ऐकून राष्ट्रपती राजेंद्रप्रसाद यांनी तुकडोजी महाराजांना राष्ट्रसंत म्हणून संबोधिलं होतं.
राष्ट्रसंत तुकडोजी महाराज आधुनिक काळातील महान संत होऊन गेले. अडकोजी महाराज हे त्यांचे गुरू. विदर्भात त्यांचा विशेष संचार असला तरी महाराष्ट्राभरच नव्हे तर देशभर हिंडून ते अध्यात्मिक सामाजिक व राष्ट्रीय एकात्मतेचं प्रबोधन करीत होते. एवढंच नव्हे तर जपानसारख्या देशात जाऊन त्यांनी सर्वांना विश्वबंधुत्वाचा संदेश दिला.
४ जून ‘पुण्यश्लोक’ अहिल्याबाई होळकर जयंती
‘पुण्यश्लोक’ अहिल्याबाई होळकर जयंती
अहिल्याबाईंना ‘पुण्यश्लोक’ असेही म्हणतात. कारण त्यांनी केलेले सामाजिक कार्य आजही
अनेकांसाठी आदर्शवत असेच ठरले आहे. घरचा आणि राज्याचा कारभार पाहण्यात
हुशार असलेल्या अहिल्याबाई होळकरांचे साम्राज्य मध्यप्रदेशात असले तरी त्या
मुळच्या मराठवाडय़ातील. बीड जिल्ह्य़ातील चौंडी हे त्यांचे मूळ गाव. माणकोजी
शिंदे-पाटील यांची अहिल्या नावाची ही मुलगी लहानपणापासूनच धाडसी होती.
तसेच राज्यकर्त्यांना आवश्यक असणारे सर्व गुण तिच्याजवळ लहानपणापासूनच
होते.एकदा चौंडी गावात थोरले बाजीराव पेशवे यांच्या सैन्याचा तळ पडला होता. सीना नदीच्या काठी असलेल्या एका देवालयात दर्शनासाठी म्हणून छोटी अहिल्या आपल्या आईबरोबर गेली होती. तेथे नदीच्या वाळूत खेळताना अहिल्येने वाळूचे एक शिवलिंग बनविले. तेवढय़ात सैन्यदलातील एकाचा घोडा उधळला. उधळलेला घोडा आपल्याच दिशेने येत असल्याचे पाहून अहिल्याबरोबरच्या मैत्रिणी भिऊन पळून गेल्या.मात्र अहिल्या मुळीच डगमगली नाही. तिने आपण तयार केलेल्या शिवलिंगावर पालथे पडून त्या शिवलिंगाचे रक्षण केले.
तेवढय़ात पाठीमागून आलेल्या श्रीमंतांनी थोडय़ाशा जरबेच्या आवाजातच अहिल्येला म्हटले की, पोरी तुला घोडय़ाने तुडवले असते तर? त्यावर अहिल्याबाई आपले डोळे श्रीमंतावर रोखत म्हणाली की, हे शिवलिंग मी घडविले आहे व आपण जे घडविले आहे त्याचे प्राणपणाने रक्षण करावे असे थोरली माणसे सांगतात. मी तेच केले आहे. तिचे बाणेदार उत्तर ऐकूण श्रीमंत तर खूष झालेच परंतु त्यांच्याबरोबर असलेले सरदार मल्हारराव होळकर यांनी छोटय़ा अहिलेला आपली सून करून घेण्याचे ठरविले. त्याप्रमाणे मल्हाररावांनी तिला आपली सून करून घेतली आणि अहिल्याबाईंनी देखील नंतर मल्हाररावांचा निर्णय सार्थ ठरविला व होळकर घराण्याची कीर्ती सर्वदूर पोहोचविली.
अनेकांसाठी आदर्शवत असेच ठरले आहे. घरचा आणि राज्याचा कारभार पाहण्यात
हुशार असलेल्या अहिल्याबाई होळकरांचे साम्राज्य मध्यप्रदेशात असले तरी त्या
मुळच्या मराठवाडय़ातील. बीड जिल्ह्य़ातील चौंडी हे त्यांचे मूळ गाव. माणकोजी
शिंदे-पाटील यांची अहिल्या नावाची ही मुलगी लहानपणापासूनच धाडसी होती.
तसेच राज्यकर्त्यांना आवश्यक असणारे सर्व गुण तिच्याजवळ लहानपणापासूनच
होते.एकदा चौंडी गावात थोरले बाजीराव पेशवे यांच्या सैन्याचा तळ पडला होता. सीना नदीच्या काठी असलेल्या एका देवालयात दर्शनासाठी म्हणून छोटी अहिल्या आपल्या आईबरोबर गेली होती. तेथे नदीच्या वाळूत खेळताना अहिल्येने वाळूचे एक शिवलिंग बनविले. तेवढय़ात सैन्यदलातील एकाचा घोडा उधळला. उधळलेला घोडा आपल्याच दिशेने येत असल्याचे पाहून अहिल्याबरोबरच्या मैत्रिणी भिऊन पळून गेल्या.मात्र अहिल्या मुळीच डगमगली नाही. तिने आपण तयार केलेल्या शिवलिंगावर पालथे पडून त्या शिवलिंगाचे रक्षण केले.
तेवढय़ात पाठीमागून आलेल्या श्रीमंतांनी थोडय़ाशा जरबेच्या आवाजातच अहिल्येला म्हटले की, पोरी तुला घोडय़ाने तुडवले असते तर? त्यावर अहिल्याबाई आपले डोळे श्रीमंतावर रोखत म्हणाली की, हे शिवलिंग मी घडविले आहे व आपण जे घडविले आहे त्याचे प्राणपणाने रक्षण करावे असे थोरली माणसे सांगतात. मी तेच केले आहे. तिचे बाणेदार उत्तर ऐकूण श्रीमंत तर खूष झालेच परंतु त्यांच्याबरोबर असलेले सरदार मल्हारराव होळकर यांनी छोटय़ा अहिलेला आपली सून करून घेण्याचे ठरविले. त्याप्रमाणे मल्हाररावांनी तिला आपली सून करून घेतली आणि अहिल्याबाईंनी देखील नंतर मल्हाररावांचा निर्णय सार्थ ठरविला व होळकर घराण्याची कीर्ती सर्वदूर पोहोचविली.
English (Compulsory) (Code No : 003)
English (Compulsory) (Code No : 003)
Standard : H.S.C.
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Total Marks : 200
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Nature of Paper : Conventional Type
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Duration : 3 Hours
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1)
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Essay : The candidates are expected to write a narrative or a descriptive essay on one of the given topics in about 300 words. It is intended to judge the candidate's knowledge of the topic, manner of presentation and also competence in using correct English.
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(Marks : 30)
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2)
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Letter writing : The candidates will be asked to write two types of letters, i.e. an informal letter to parents/ to a friend and a formal letter – an official/ business letter or a letter to the editor of a newspaper on a given topic in about 100 words. The candidate will be judged for content, manner of presentation and observance of the formal requirements of letter writing.
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(Marks : 20)
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3)
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Communication Skills : The candidates are expected to write on each of the following communicative activities (in about 100-150 words). The purpose is to judge the candidate's ability to communicate effectively in different cont1exts:
a) A report of an event or a function or official work done.
b) A notice or an appeal or a warning or a Press Release for the Media (Radio, T.V., Press).
c) (i) Dialogue writing : A dialogue between two persons or an appeal or a discussion on a topical issue.
(ii) Speeches : formal speeches – welcome / send- off/inaugural speech etc.
(d) An individual conversation with a group of people --
(1) at a Job Interview.
(2) at a Press Conference.
(3) with a delegation
(4) at a project site -- e.g.: (i) camps being constructed for cattle in a drought-affected area, (ii) temporary shelters being constructed for earthquake-affected people.
(5) at a place where some problematic situation has occurred -- e.g.: natural calamities like floods, earthquakes etc.
(e) A Group Discussion, a Meeting, a Teleconference on a topical issue.
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(Marks : 50)
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4)
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Precis-writing : A passage of about 300 words will be given for precis-writing. The candidates are expected to reduce the passage to one-third of its original length in their own words. The purpose of precis-writing is to judge the candidate’s ability to comprehend, analyse and summarise the main ideas in the passage in their own words to one-third of the given number of words therein.
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(Marks : 20)
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5)
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Comprehension : A passage of about 300 words will be given with a set of questions based thereon. The purpose of the activity is to assess the candidate's competence in understanding and answering questions based on the passage.
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(Marks : 20)
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6)
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Paraphrase of a Prose Passage : A prose passage of about 300 words will be given to be paraphrased in order to judge the candidate’s ability to understand, analyse and express clearly and in simple language the ideas in the passage in his/her own words.
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(Marks : 20)
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7)
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Grammar :
i) Transformation of Sentences, ii) Correction of Sentences,
iii) Use of Tenses, iv) Punctuation, v) Word-formation,
vi) Use of Phrases.
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